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WWII, Housing, and Politics :. Entry of the United States into World War II, after the bombing of Pearl Harbor in Decemberled to the end of the Great Depression as the war effort jumpstarted industry. As the nation prepared for war in the summer ofjobs in the war industries of the city, especially at the Brooklyn Navy Yard, buy quarterly essay, were opened to black men and women—albeit in low-paying jobs—and they took advantage of opportunities in shipbuilding and other industrial trades.
Still, the armed forces and the war industries continued to be segregated until New Yorker A. Philip Randolph—founder of the predominantly black union, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Buy quarterly essay Porters—threatened a march on Washington. In JunePresident Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order banning discrimination in the defense industries and government.
Black males experienced improved employment opportunities during and after buy quarterly essay war as well. The G. Bill offered those who had fought in the armed services unprecedented opportunities to purchase housing and to pursue college and university degrees. The abolition of restrictive covenants and discrimination in housing, coupled with the G. Bill, opened housing opportunities for black New Yorkers in the outer boroughs. There was a downside, however, buy quarterly essay, to this prosperity.
Over the next two decades, the dispersal of the black middle and upper classes from Harlem, among other factors, would profoundly change the dynamics of the neighborhood. The NAACP and its Legal Defense and Educational Fund took the lead after the war, prosecuting cases that challenged racial segregation in education, public accommodations, housing, buy quarterly essay, and employment. Harlem Congressman Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. The s saw the beginning of the Second Great Migration that lasted until the s.
The exodus of African Americans from the South to the North and West was much larger and quite different from the more famous movement that had preceded it. Byabout five million African Americans had migrated. They became a more urbanized population than whites: more than 80 percent lived in cities, as compared to 70 percent for the general population; and while 53 percent remained in the South, 47 percent made the North and West their home.
Between and, southerners settled in New York City. But there, as in other cities, segregation and discrimination created an explosive situation. The resentment over discrimination in jobs and housing, police brutality, and humiliations of all sorts culminated in major riots infrom Detroit to New York.
The war effort did not benefit black New Yorkers as much as they had expected. They were denied access to many factory positions. When industrial jobs were available, they were often the least skilled, least desirable, and lowest paying, offering the least opportunity for advancement.
African Americans were disproportionately represented in janitorial and service industry jobs that offered few if any benefits and little chance for upward mobility.
Women found some openings in the war industry. There were opportunities—albeit limited ones—for African-American women to gain clerical employment. Sometimes, however, company decisions to buy quarterly essay black women in clerical positions were rooted in the desire to buy quarterly essay contact with white customers or coworkers in sales positions.
Notwithstanding numerous obstacles, some African-American women rose to preeminence in the professional world. Bettie Esther Parham, born and raised in North Carolina, received degrees in education buy quarterly essay chemistry buy quarterly essay took additional advanced courses in North Carolina and New York; she taught chemistry at Dillard University in New Orleans.
She was the owner and founder of the National Beauty Supply Company and its subsidiaries, which operated from New York and provided products geared toward black women.
They were sold to beauty shops, with a full line of cosmetics added for the consumer trade. In the s Parham became the first black retail owner on th Street. Her subsidiaries were Esther Beauty Aids Company, manufacturing cosmetics; The Esther Beauterias, beauty salons in Brooklyn and Manhattan; and Esther Hair Goods Division, which produced wigs and other hair goods.
In Parham became the first African American to expand her business to Africa by exporting her line of products to Nigeria. In the s she entered the food business, marketing sauces. Born in buy quarterly essay Edgefield, South Carolina, into a large middle-class family, Ophelia DeVore moved to New York indid some modeling, and later attended New York University, where she majored in mathematics.
Inshe launched the Grace Del Marco Agency, one of the first modeling agencies and charm schools to book African Americans. Diahann Carroll, Cecily Tyson, Gil Noble, Camille Cosby, and Richard Roundtree were among the alumni of the agency. Rose Morgan, born in Mississippi, owned the Rose-Meta House of Beauty, Inc. Between andshe was married to heavyweight boxer Joe Louis. The irony of fighting a war for democracy abroad while suffering the injustices of racial discrimination and segregation at home was not lost on African Americans during World War II.
On June 16,twenty-two thousand African Americans rallied at Madison Square Gar den in support of A. Randolph threatened to stage a March on Washington, buy quarterly essay, D. A week before it was scheduled to take place, Roosevelt issued Executive Order banning racial discrimination in the war industries and government and setting up the Fair Employment Practices Committee FEPCwhose task was to investigate violations and redress grievances, buy quarterly essay.
The march was called off, buy quarterly essay. Hearings held in New York showed the extent of the discrimination: numerous defense firms acknowledged they did not have a single black employee, buy quarterly essay. The Fairchild Aviation Corporation had four blacks among its 1, employees. Despite the law, discrimination in employment did not disappear from the Five Boroughs.
The war years saw a major eruption of racial disturbances. During the summer ofmore than incidents occurred in forty-seven American cities, including Detroit; Mobile, Alabama; Beaumont, buy quarterly essay, Texas; and New York City, buy quarterly essay. On August 1,a black woman, Marjorie Polite, was involved in an argument over a room she was not satisfied with at the Hotel Braddock on th Street.
A white policeman trying to arrest her struck her. Robert Bandy, a soldier in the U. army, intervened, and during a fight with the police officer, buy quarterly essay, he was shot in the shoulder. Rumor spread that he had been lethally shot in the back. A crowd gathered in front of Sydenham Hospital on rd Street and St. Nicholas Avenue.
For two days, facing a force of 6, city and military police, 8, State Guardsmen on standby, and 1, civilian volunteers, angry residents including the elderly and soldiers on leave poured into the streets. More than 1, stores buy quarterly essay nd and th streets were attacked, damaged, or looted. Six people were killed. Close to people were injured and as many were arrested. I had the feeling it was a spontaneous outburst of anger, stemming mainly from the economic pinch.
The shooting of the soldier was indeed the spark that set it off. The riot had several causes, according to reports to the Office of War Information. Buy quarterly essay the Depression, the migration out of the Buy quarterly essay was insignificant. Finding work anywhere was a challenge. But World War II, just like World War I, unleashed a vast movement of Africans Americans eager to leave the segregation, violence, and economic stagnation of the South in search of jobs linked to the war effort.
Between and half a million black southerners migrated to New York State;came from South Carolina,from Virginia,from North Carolina, 97, from Georgia, and 43, from Florida. The vast majority headed to New York City: between andfor example, out ofnewcomers,settled there. By the early s, there wereblack New Yorkers, and aboutof them lived in Harlem, buy quarterly essay. Harlem in the s was home to a struggling working class and a rising middle class.
To Southern migrants it was a magnet and the possibility to escape the dire conditions of their hometowns. One no longer had to wait to get to heaven to lay his burden down; burdens could be laid down in New York. The influx of newcomers resulted in a shortage of housing that, along with segregation, led to extremely crowded conditions. Like the people who preceded them during the Great Migration, families doubled up and strangers had to share bathrooms and kitchens.
Overcrowding and the lack of enforcement of housing and sanitation codes buy quarterly essay in unsanitary conditions. Landlords had a captive population and took advantage of it by raising the rents.
To add to their misery, they had little hope of deliverance. The main architect of these transformations was the urban planner Robert Moses, who controlled New York City highway and housing development from the s to the s, leading the offensive that would restrict black residents to ghettoized neighborhoods.
MetLife announced the building of the Riverton in Harlem in to answer critics. His evictions of predominantly black, Hispanic, and poor people—, to build expressways, and anotherto build housing and other non-highway public works—created new slum areas as he eliminated old ones, buy quarterly essay. The razing of black neighborhoods was paralleled by the construction of low-income projects.
They were often unsafe, segregated, poorly planned and constructed, and located in the most impoverished neighborhoods. During the s, about one-third of East Harlem was leveled to create the Wagner, Taft, and Jefferson complexes.
More than 75, low-income units were constructed, housing more thanbuy quarterly essay, tenants. The Federal Housing Act of made low-interest loans available for urban renewal and redevelopment. Most private projects were segregated; the Amsterdam News revealed in that of 23, apartments in 22 private but publicly assisted buildings, a mere 27 were rented to African Americans. By, people lived in 74 New York City public housing projects, one-third of whom were black.
Middle-class African Americans encountered housing obstacles of their own with banks reluctant to lend them money. One of the most influential forces in maintaining housing segregation was the federal government. Mapping and appraisal systems developed by these agencies favored the growth of white, suburban housing developments and created obstacles for African Americans who wished to obtain home loans.
They were forced to remain in poor, substandard neighborhoods. It is in this context that on November 5, buy quarterly essay, African Americans founded the Carver Federal Savings and Loan Association, named for scientist George Washington Carver.
The bank—still the largest black-operated bank in the country—opened at 53 West th Street in Harlem in Januaryproviding mortgages to local residents. On December 5, buy quarterly essay,New York became the first city to legislate against racial or religious discrimination in the housing market with the adoption of a Fair Housing Practices Law; but notwithstanding continued protests and sustained actions, New York City remained thoroughly segregated.
Harlem was almost entirely African-American, and 86 percent of all black Brooklynites were concentrated in Bedford-Stuyvesant.
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